Cognitive distortions: what they are, with 10 examples

Where does the list of cognitive distortions come from?

There is no single official list. Two papers that built questionnaires describe the history in slightly different ways. Both papers say Beck first described a short list of six types, and that David Burns later expanded and renamed them. They cite different editions of the books, so we won't give years, and we haven't read the books themselves.

The ten below are the ones measured by the Cognitive Distortion Scale in a 2023 Japanese study by Takeda and colleagues. Other lists differ. A 15-item questionnaire described in a 2015 paper adds things like 'what if?' statements, unfair comparisons and blaming. The two papers give the names only. The definitions and examples here are our own wording, so if you see them put differently elsewhere, that is normal.

The 10 cognitive distortions, with examples

Read them as a menu of things to notice. One thought can fit more than one, and some thoughts fit none.

• Mind reading: deciding what someone else thinks without checking. 'She hasn't replied, so she must be annoyed with me.'
• Catastrophising: jumping to the worst possible outcome. 'If this presentation goes badly, my career is over.'
• All-or-nothing thinking: seeing only two boxes, with nothing in between. 'If it isn't perfect, it's a failure.'
• Emotional reasoning: treating a feeling as proof. 'I feel stupid, so I must be stupid.'
• Labelling: pinning a fixed label on yourself or someone else after one event. 'I forgot the meeting, so I'm useless.'
• Mental filter: picking out one negative detail and letting it colour everything. Nine kind comments and one correction, and the correction is all you can think about.
• Overgeneralising: turning one event into a rule. 'I didn't get the job. I never get anything.'
• Personalising: taking the blame for something that wasn't only down to you. 'My friend seems quiet, I must have upset her.'
• Should statements: rigid rules about how you or others must behave. 'I should be coping better by now.'
• Minimising the positive: waving good things away. 'That compliment doesn't count. She was only being nice.'

Notice that every example sounds like something a tired, worried mind would say. Having one of these thoughts doesn't mean something is wrong with you. If you want to try this on a thought of your own, the cognitive distortions worksheet has all ten in a checklist.

Do cognitive distortions cause depression or anxiety?

We can't say they do. The research we read is about depression. We found nothing on anxiety. What the research we read shows is a link, not a cause. In the 2023 Japanese study, 237 people from the general population (not attending a medical service, though 46% of them reported at least mild depressive symptoms) and 39 people with a psychiatrist-confirmed diagnosis of major depression filled in the scale. Scores on it were linked to dysfunctional attitudes, negative automatic thoughts and depression, and total scores differed between the general-population group and the group with major depression. That is a snapshot at one point in time, so it can't show which came first.

The paper is also honest about limits. The authors also say the statistics don't show clearly how many separate types there are, and that this 'requires further investigation'. The 2015 paper lists its own limits too, including a limited number of participants and relying only on self-report measures. In plain terms, the list is a useful way to describe thoughts, and the science of how neatly it divides them up is not settled.

We found nothing in what we read that tests whether naming distortions on a worksheet changes how anyone feels. We know of no trial of this guide or the worksheets that go with it.

How to test a distorted thought, step by step

This is a short, self-help version of an idea used in CBT. It is for everyday thoughts, such as a worry about a message or a mistake. Use it on a thought that feels manageable. If the thought is about harming yourself, or it is tied to something painful that happened to you, set this page aside and see 'When to get more support' below.

1. 1Catch the thought. Write it down in one sentence, as it sounds in your head: 'She hasn't replied, so she's angry with me.'
2. 2Ask which trap it might be. Look down the list of ten. It might be one, several, or none, and 'none' is a fair answer.
3. 3Look at the evidence. Write what supports the thought and what doesn't, sticking to facts you could point to rather than guesses.
4. 4Write a fairer sentence. Not a cheerful one, a fairer one: 'I don't know why she hasn't replied. She might be busy.' It only needs to be something you could believe.
5. 5Check in with yourself. Notice whether anything has shifted, even slightly, and leave it there if not. The goal is to look at the thought, not to win an argument with yourself.

That last point matters. The psychologist Christine Padesky, who trains cognitive therapists, wrote in 1993 that the aim of cognitive therapy is 'not simply to make our clients think differently or feel better today', but to teach a way of weighing up thoughts, behaviours and moods. If you'd like a set of questions for step 3, the Socratic questioning worksheet has them, and the thought record worksheet puts all five steps into one table.

Mistakes to avoid when spotting thinking traps

• Treating every painful thought as a distortion. Sometimes a thought is accurate and the situation is hard. Naming a trap is for thoughts that don't hold up when you look at the facts.
• Using the list to dismiss real problems. A thought like 'my job is not safe' can be true. The list helps you check the thought, not argue away what is real.
• Using the list on other people. Calling someone else's view a 'distortion' in an argument is not what it is for.
• Criticising yourself for having thoughts like these. That just adds another harsh thought. The guide to quieting your inner critic can help if that is happening.
• Testing a thought that is a warning. If you are afraid of someone, or you are not safe where you are, a thought like 'something bad is going to happen' may be accurate. The next step is safety, not a fairer sentence. In the UK, the National Domestic Abuse Helpline is free on 0808 2000 247, 24 hours; in the US, call 1-800-799-7233. Our helplines page lists more.
• Expecting the thought to vanish. Padesky describes the aim as learning a way to weigh thoughts up, not winning once.

Does this kind of CBT self-help work?

Honestly, the evidence is about CBT done in a particular way, and not about worksheets like ours. A 2012 review by Stefan Hofmann and colleagues looked at a representative sample of 106 earlier research summaries (meta-analyses) of CBT for a wide range of problems, and concluded that, in general, its evidence base is very strong, while calling for more randomised research (studies where people are randomly assigned to groups). Those are reviews of CBT as a treatment, and none of them is a trial of this worksheet.

Self-guided programmes are a closer comparison, but still not the same thing. A 2011 meta-analysis by Pim Cuijpers and colleagues pooled seven trials with 1,362 people who had raised depressive symptoms and used self-guided treatment with no contact with a therapist or coach. It found a small but significant effect straight after treatment, and a similar small effect at follow-up four to twelve months later. 'Small' is the word the authors use. A single worksheet is a lighter thing than a structured programme, so please don't read these results as promising that this page will work for you.

The NHS describes CBT as a talking therapy in which a therapist helps you change how you think and act, and lists 'questioning unhelpful thoughts and beliefs' among the approaches. It also says guided self-help, with the help of a therapist, is one way to receive it. If you want CBT itself, see the next section.

When to get more support

This guide is a self-help tool, not therapy, and it doesn't treat anxiety, depression or anything else. It's worth talking to your GP or another qualified professional if the thoughts feel constant or too heavy to look at on your own, if they affect your sleep, work or relationships, if feeling low or hopeless is getting in the way of your life, or if you're worried about how long it has lasted. In England you can also refer yourself to NHS Talking Therapies for anxiety and depression support without seeing a GP first (you need to be registered with a GP and aged 18 or over, or 16 or over in some areas). Our helplines and therapist directory lists routes in other countries too.

If a thought involves harming yourself or ending your life, please don't test it on a worksheet. Reach out now: in the UK and Ireland, call Samaritans on 116 123; in the US, call or text 988; elsewhere, findahelpline.com lists free, confidential lines. If you are in immediate danger, call your local emergency number. You deserve real support, not just a page to read.